Scientific Experiences in Mechanical Engineering

Original Research Articles

Effects of Car Air Freshener Formulations on Airborne Particle Concentrations in Solar-Heated Vehicle Cabins

Riyados Solichin , Muji Setiyo , Mohamad Heerwan Bin Peeie

Published
2 January 2027

Vol. 1 No. 1 (2027): Issue in Progress
Pages e2.1-13

DOI

Open Access
Download PDF
Share

Abstract

Vehicle cabin air quality has become an important concern due to the accumulation of airborne pollutants in enclosed environments. In addition to emissions from interior materials, car air fresheners may influence airborne particle formation through the release and evaporation of fragrance-related volatile compounds, particularly under elevated temperatures caused by solar exposure. This study investigated the effects of different car air freshener types on vehicle cabin air quality through measurements of airborne particle concentrations and characterization of air freshener chemical compositions using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Experiments were conducted using a Daihatsu Gran Max vehicle exposed to direct sunlight under four conditions: without air freshener, liquid air freshener, gel air freshener, and solid air freshener. Particle concentrations at six particle sizes (0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 µm), cabin temperature, and relative humidity were recorded at 30-minute intervals over a three-hour period. The results showed that cabin temperature increased from approximately 24–28°C to more than 45°C during solar exposure, while relative humidity decreased substantially. The liquid air freshener produced the highest concentration of 0.3 µm particles, reaching 100,089 pcs/L, representing a 56.2% increase compared with the control condition. The gel air freshener increased particle concentration by 46.1%, whereas the solid air freshener exhibited the lowest particle levels throughout the experiment. FTIR analysis identified several volatile-related functional groups, including hydroxyl, aliphatic, ester, phosphate, nitro, and fluorinated compounds. The liquid and gel air fresheners exhibited a greater abundance of volatile-related functional groups, which corresponded to their higher airborne particle concentrations. These findings demonstrate that car air freshener formulation significantly influences airborne particle dynamics inside vehicle cabins under solar-heated conditions and suggest that low-volatility air freshener products may help reduce occupant exposure to airborne pollutants in tropical environments.

Keywords

Vehicle interior air quality; Car air freshener; Airborne particles; FTIR; Solar exposure; Particle concentration

References

  1. [1] W.-W. Li, “Air pollution, air quality, vehicle emissions, and environmental regulations,” in Traffic-Related Air Pollution, Department of Civil Engineering, Univeristy of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States: Elsevier, 2020, pp. 23–49. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818122-5.00002-8.
  2. [2] L. K. Bhardwaj, P. Rath, K. Dhanaraj, M. P. Raju, and Y. K. Sharma, “Air Pollution, Sustainable Air Quality Management, and Public Health,” in Transforming Cities by Controlling Pollution and Traffic Congestion, Amity Institute of Environmental Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India: IGI Global, 2026, pp. 97–128. doi: 10.4018/979-8-3373-4422-5.ch004.
  3. [3] M. A. Nasr and N. Eissa, “Rural and Urban Pollution,” in Epidemiology and Environmental Hygiene in Veterinary Public Health, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, Egypt: wiley, 2025, pp. 405–414. doi: 10.1002/9781394208180.ch35.
  4. [4] E. Chaudhary, A. Sekar, S. Ghosh, T. Singh, and S. Saha, “Investigating the link between urban air quality, energy consumption, and respiratory health,” in Sustainable Urban Environments for Human Health, Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, United States: Elsevier, 2025, pp. 165–210. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-40407-8.00013-8.
  5. [5] B. Xu, X. Chen, and J. Xiong, “Air quality inside motor vehicles’ cabins: A review,” Indor and Built Environment, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 452–465, 2018, doi: 10.1177/1420326X16679217.
  6. [6] S. M. Badawy and A. Hashem, “Sources of volatile organic chemicals and factors affecting emissions from interior materials in vehicular environment. Review,” Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, vol. 19, no. 4, 2026, doi: 10.1007/s11869-026-01956-z.
  7. [7] A. Mehel et al., “On-board measurements using two successive vehicles to assess in-cabin concentrations of on-road pollutants,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, vol. 14, no. 2, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.apr.2023.101673.
  8. [8] D. Campagnolo et al., “Effects of the Emissions of Vehicles Ahead on In-Car Exposure to Traffic-Related Air Pollutants: A Multiple Statistical Analysis Approach,” Indoor Air, vol. 2024, 2024, doi: 10.1155/2024/6377126.
  9. [9] H. Wang et al., “Observation, prediction, and risk assessment of volatile organic compounds in a vehicle cabin environment,” Cell Reports Physical Science, vol. 4, no. 4, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2023.101375.
  10. [10] B. Liang, X. Yu, H. Mi, D. Liu, Q. Huang, and M. Tian, “Health risk assessment and source apportionment of VOCs inside new vehicle cabins: A case study from Chongqing, China,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 1677–1684, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.apr.2019.06.008.
  11. [11] J. Faber and K. Brodzik, “Air quality inside passenger cars,” AIMS Environmental Science, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 112–133, 2017, doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.1.112.
  12. [12] S. K. Shukla, K. V Balaji, and S. Varatharajan, “Vehicle Interior Material Emissions and Contributions in Passenger Vehicle Cabin Air Quality,” in SAE Technical Papers, Mahindra & Mahindra, Ltd., India: SAE International, 2026. doi: 10.4271/2026-26-0287.
  13. [13] H. Wang et al., “Predicting the emission characteristics of VOCs in a simulated vehicle cabin environment based on small-scale chamber tests: Parameter determination and validation,” Environment International, vol. 142, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105817.
  14. [14] W. Huang, M. Lv, and X. Yang, “Long-term volatile organic compound emission rates in a new electric vehicle: Influence of temperature and vehicle age,” Building and Environment, vol. 168, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106465.
  15. [15] J. Verner, M. Sejkorová, and P. Veselík, “Volatile organic compounds in motor vehicle interiors under various conditions and their effect on human health,” Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport, vol. 107, pp. 205–216, 2020, doi: 10.20858/sjsutst.2020.107.16.
  16. [16] R. Zhang et al., “Cabin air dynamics: Unraveling the patterns and drivers of volatile organic compound distribution in vehicles.,” PNAS nexus, vol. 3, no. 7, p. pgae243, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae243.
  17. [17] N. Wei and M. Zheng, “Influence of environmental factors and vehicle factors on VOC volatilization characteristics in automobiles,” Chemical Engineering Transactions, vol. 71, pp. 331–336, 2018, doi: 10.3303/CET1871056.
  18. [18] S. C. Vishweshwara, J. Marhoon, and A. L. Dhali, “Study of Excessive Cabin Temperatures of the Car Parked in Oman and its Mitigation,” International Journal Of Multidisciplinary Sciences And Engineering, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 18–22, 2013, [Online]. Available: http://www.ijmse.org/Volume4/Issue9/paper4.pdf
  19. [19] M. A. Othoman, M. S. M. Fouzi, and A. Nordin, “Assessment of thermal comfort in a car cabin under sun radiation exposure,” in Advanced Structured Materials, vol. 85, Mechanical Engineering Department, Politeknik Ungku Omar, Jalan Raja Musa Mahadi, Ipoh, 31400, Perak, Malaysia: Springer Verlag, 2018, pp. 469–479. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-72697-7_39.
  20. [20] S. M. Chaurasiya, S. Kirpekar, and A. R. Arankalle, “Studies on tropical conditions in hot sunny days in India and their effects on interior temperature rise in truck cabin,” in Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, vol. 0, Vel Tech Dr. RR and Dr. SR Technical University, Avadi, Chennai, India: Pleiades journals, 2014, pp. 269–275. doi: 10.1007/978-81-322-1871-5_33.
  21. [21] A. Steinemann, N. Nematollahi, J. L. Weinberg, J. Flattery, N. Goodman, and S. D. Kolev, “Volatile chemical emissions from car air fresheners,” Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 1329–1334, 2020, doi: 10.1007/s11869-020-00886-8.
  22. [22] M. Moss, J. Ho, S. Swinburne, and A. Turner, “Aroma of the essential oil of peppermint reduces aggressive driving behaviour in healthy adults,” Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, vol. 38, no. 2, p. e2865, Mar. 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.2865.
  23. [23] R. S. Herz, “Aromatherapy Facts and Fictions: A Scientific Analysis of Olfactory Effects on Mood, Physiology and Behavior,” International Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 119, no. 2, pp. 263–290, Jan. 2009, doi: 10.1080/00207450802333953.
  24. [24] J. Kamaldin, H. Pengiran, S. F. Mohd-Salleh, and A. Rahman, “GHS Acute Toxicity Hazard Class of the Selected Car Air Fresheners Sold in Major Hypermarkets, Penang, Malaysia Without Ingredient Information,” Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 2024, [Online]. Available: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:285192630
  25. [25] M. Lee, S. Lee, J. Park, and C. Yoon, “Effect of spraying air freshener on particulate and volatile organic compounds in vehicles,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 916, no. September 2023, p. 170192, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170192.
  26. [26] Y. Gao, M. Zhang, H. Wang, and J. Xiong, “Experimental Investigation on the Reaction Characteristics between Ozone and Vehicle Cabin/Furniture Materials,” Atmosphere, vol. 14, no. 5, 2023, doi: 10.3390/atmos14050769.
Article Metrics
236
Views
98
Downloads

SCITE

DIMENSIONS

Publication Information
Published 2 January 2027
Section Original Research Articles
Copyright Copyright (c) 2027 Riyados Solichin, Muji Setiyo, Mohamad Heerwan Bin Peeie (Author)
License Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Keywords
  • Vehicle interior air quality
  • Car air freshener
  • Airborne particles
  • FTIR
  • Solar exposure
  • Particle concentration
Related Articles
Mechanical and FTIR Characterization of Hybrid Composites Reinforced with Coconut Coir Fiber and Pine Fruit Peel Powder

Sari et al.

Vol. 1 No. 1 (2027): Issue in Progress | e3.1-9

Effects of Different Seatbelt Reminders on Seatbelt Wearing Rates: Malaysian Case Study

Karjanto et al.

Vol. 1 No. 1 (2027): Issue in Progress | e5.1-12

Thermo-Hydraulic Characteristics of TiO₂-SiO₂ Hybrid Nanofluids Utilizing Wire Coil Inserts: A Numerical Study

Ramadhan et al.

Vol. 1 No. 1 (2027): Issue in Progress | e6.1-13